Problem simplification
Let's focus on the cosine case. The sine case proceeds similarly, either using
a trigonometric formula such as cos ( θ ) = sin ( π / 2 − θ ) \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\cos(\theta) = \sin(\pi/2 -
\theta) cos ( θ ) = sin ( π /2 − θ ) or reproducing each step mutatis mutandis . For starters, by
linearity of the integral we can deal w.l.o.g. with the case where Q \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
Q Q
is a monomial. Also, if a > 0 \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
a > 0 a > 0 , a change of variable t ′ = t − a \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
t' = t - a t ′ = t − a
and an update of the constant term γ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\gamma γ of the polynomial inside the
cosine takes us to the same problem with a = 0 \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
a = 0 a = 0 . Furthermore, since
cos \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\cos cos is an even function, we can assume w.l.o.g. that α > 0 \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\alpha >
0 α > 0 .
Reduction of the outer polynomial degree
If Q \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
Q Q has degree n + 1 \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
n + 1 n + 1 for n ≥ 1 \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
n \geq 1 n ≥ 1 , integrating by
parts leads us back to two Integrals of Sines of Polynomials (ISP), one with
d e g ( Q ) = n − 1 \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\mathrm{deg}(Q) = n - 1 deg ( Q ) = n − 1 and the other where d e g ( Q ) = 0 \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\mathrm{deg}(Q) =
0 deg ( Q ) = 0 . If Q \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
Q Q has degree 1, we write the ISP as the real part of its complex
counterpart:
ℜ ( ∫ 0 b t e i t d t ) \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\Re\left(\int_0^b t e^{it}{\rm d}t\right) ℜ ( ∫ 0 b t e i t d t ) Calculating in the complex world allows us to rewrite the expression as:
1 2 α [ sin ( α b 2 + β b + γ ) − sin γ − β ∫ a b sin ( α t 2 + β t + γ ) d t ] \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\frac{1}{2 \alpha} \left[\sin(\alpha b^2 + \beta b + \gamma) - \sin \gamma - \beta \int_a^b \sin(\alpha t^2 + \beta t + \gamma) {\rm d}t\right] 2 α 1 [ sin ( α b 2 + β b + γ ) − sin γ − β ∫ a b sin ( α t 2 + βt + γ ) d t ] We are thus down to the case where Q \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
Q Q is simply a constant.
Reduction of the inner polynomial degree
Let's now take a look at the "inner" polynomial under the cosine or sine of the
ISP, whose degree is 2. A change of variable allows us to eliminate its
degree-one monomial:
∫ 0 b cos ( α t 2 + β t + γ ) d t = 1 α ∫ β 2 α α b + β 2 α cos [ u 2 + ( γ − β 2 4 α ) ] d u \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\int_0^b \cos(\alpha t^2 + \beta t + \gamma) {\rm d}t = \frac{1}{\sqrt{\alpha}} \int_{\frac{\beta}{2\sqrt{\alpha}}}^{\sqrt{\alpha} b + \frac{\beta}{2\sqrt{\alpha}}} \cos\left[u^2 + \left(\gamma - \frac{\beta^2}{4 \alpha}\right)\right] {\rm d}u ∫ 0 b cos ( α t 2 + βt + γ ) d t = α 1 ∫ 2 α β α b + 2 α β cos [ u 2 + ( γ − 4 α β 2 ) ] d u Trigonometric formulas to the rescue:
cos [ u 2 + ( γ − β 2 4 α ) ] = cos ( u 2 ) cos ( γ − β 2 4 α ) − sin ( u 2 ) sin ( γ − β 2 4 α ) \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\cos\left[u^2 + \left(\gamma - \frac{\beta^2}{4 \alpha}\right)\right]
= \cos(u^2) \cos\left(\gamma - \frac{\beta^2}{4 \alpha}\right) - \sin(u^2) \sin\left(\gamma - \frac{\beta^2}{4 \alpha}\right) cos [ u 2 + ( γ − 4 α β 2 ) ] = cos ( u 2 ) cos ( γ − 4 α β 2 ) − sin ( u 2 ) sin ( γ − 4 α β 2 ) We thus eliminate the constant term γ − β 2 / 4 α \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\gamma - \beta^2 / 4\alpha γ − β 2 /4 α , modulo
multiplicating by a few constants. All that's left to calculate our ISP is to
integrate cos ( u 2 ) \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\cos(u^2) cos ( u 2 ) .
Power series expansion
Consider the power series expansion of the expression under the integral:
∫ 0 b cos ( u 2 ) d u = ∫ 0 b ∑ n = 0 + ∞ ( − 1 ) n u 4 n ( 2 n ) ! d u \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\int_0^{b} \cos(u^2) {\rm d} u = \int_0^{b} \sum_{n=0}^{+\infty} (-1)^n \frac{u^{4n}}{(2n)!} {\rm d}u ∫ 0 b cos ( u 2 ) d u = ∫ 0 b n = 0 ∑ + ∞ ( − 1 ) n ( 2 n )! u 4 n d u By a normal convergence criterion, we can apply the integral-power series
inversion theorem
to swap the sum and integral symbols in this expression. This yields:
∫ 0 b cos ( u 2 ) d u = ∑ n = 0 + ∞ ( − 1 ) n ( 2 n ) ! b 4 n + 1 4 n + 1 \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
\int_0^{b} \cos(u^2) {\rm d} u = \sum_{n=0}^{+\infty} \frac{(-1)^n}{(2n)!} \frac{b^{4n+1}}{4n+1} ∫ 0 b cos ( u 2 ) d u = n = 0 ∑ + ∞ ( 2 n )! ( − 1 ) n 4 n + 1 b 4 n + 1 The partial sums and remainder of this series are easy to estimate, as the
power series is an alternating one. If b \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
b b is not "too" large, we can
approximate its value by computing the series up to some index N \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
N N , the
remainder of order N \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
N N giving us the order of magnitude of the precision
of this result.
Yet, this method would not work as we go to larger and larger values of
b \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
b b : terms in this alternating series are then of increasing magnitudes,
and we will run into numerical precision issues when computing their
differences with floating-point arithmetic (for instance, the double type in
C). One (non-trivial) solution to this problem would be to group terms by
orders of magnitude, but we will leave this question open in this post.
C++ implementation
Here is an iterative implementation of this method in C++, starting with the
reduced problem:
constexpr double kDesiredPrecision = 1e-20 ;
double integrate_cos_x2 ( double b ) {
if ( b > 1 ) {
warn ( "Precision issue due to high bound." );
}
const double stop_threshold = kDesiredPrecision / b ;
double cur_fact = 1.0 ;
double cur_term = 1.0 ;
double sum = cur_term ;
for ( unsigned i = 1 ; cur_term < 0.0 || cur_term > stop_threshold ; ++ i ) {
cur_fact *= ( -1.0 ) * ( b * b * b * b ) / ( 2.0 * i ) / ( 2.0 * i - 1.0 );
cur_term = cur_fact / ( 4.0 * i + 1.0 );
sum += cur_term ;
}
return b * sum ;
}
double integrate_cos_x2 ( double from , double to ) {
return integrate_cos_x2 ( to ) - integrate_cos_x2 ( from );
}
The integrate_sin_x2()
function can be implemented similarly. Next,
suppose we have defined a Polynomial
class where the bracket
operator[]
reads individual coefficients. We can finally solve our ISPs
as:
enum SineFunction { COS , SIN };
double integrate_isp ( SineFunction sine , Polynomial P , double from , double to ) {
if ( P [ 2 ] < 0 ) {
switch ( sine ) {
case COS :
return integrate_isp ( sine , - P , from , to );
case SIN :
default :
return - integrate_isp ( sine , - P , from , to );
}
}
double dc_sqrt = sqrtl ( P [ 2 ]);
double new_from = dc_sqrt * from + P [ 1 ] / 2. / dc_sqrt ;
double new_to = dc_sqrt * to + P [ 1 ] / 2. / dc_sqrt ;
double delta = P [ 0 ] - P [ 1 ] * P [ 1 ] / 4. / dc_sqrt ;
double I1 , I2 ;
switch ( sine ) {
case COS :
I1 = cosl ( delta ) * integrate_cos_x2 ( new_from , new_to );
I2 = sinl ( delta ) * integrate_sin_x2 ( new_from , new_to );
return I1 - I2 ;
case SIN :
default :
I1 = cosl ( delta ) * integrate_sin_x2 ( new_from , new_to );
I2 = sinl ( delta ) * integrate_cos_x2 ( new_from , new_to );
return I1 + I2 ;
}
}
Wrapping up: with some trigonometric and power-series analysis, we found a way
to compute with relatively little code our integrals of sines of polynomials.
Yet, our algorithm becomes numerically unstable over large integration domains
(b → ∞ \def\bfA{\boldsymbol{A}}
\def\bfB{\boldsymbol{B}}
\def\bfC{\boldsymbol{C}}
\def\bfD{\boldsymbol{D}}
\def\bfE{\boldsymbol{E}}
\def\bfF{\boldsymbol{F}}
\def\bfG{\boldsymbol{G}}
\def\bfH{\boldsymbol{H}}
\def\bfI{\boldsymbol{I}}
\def\bfJ{\boldsymbol{J}}
\def\bfK{\boldsymbol{K}}
\def\bfL{\boldsymbol{L}}
\def\bfM{\boldsymbol{M}}
\def\bfN{\boldsymbol{N}}
\def\bfO{\boldsymbol{O}}
\def\bfP{\boldsymbol{P}}
\def\bfQ{\boldsymbol{Q}}
\def\bfR{\boldsymbol{R}}
\def\bfS{\boldsymbol{S}}
\def\bfT{\boldsymbol{T}}
\def\bfU{\boldsymbol{U}}
\def\bfV{\boldsymbol{V}}
\def\bfW{\boldsymbol{W}}
\def\bfX{\boldsymbol{X}}
\def\bfY{\boldsymbol{Y}}
\def\bfZ{\boldsymbol{Z}}
\def\bfalpha{\boldsymbol{\alpha}}
\def\bfa{\boldsymbol{a}}
\def\bfbeta{\boldsymbol{\beta}}
\def\bfb{\boldsymbol{b}}
\def\bfcd{\dot{\bfc}}
\def\bfchi{\boldsymbol{\chi}}
\def\bfc{\boldsymbol{c}}
\def\bfd{\boldsymbol{d}}
\def\bfe{\boldsymbol{e}}
\def\bff{\boldsymbol{f}}
\def\bfgamma{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}
\def\bfg{\boldsymbol{g}}
\def\bfh{\boldsymbol{h}}
\def\bfi{\boldsymbol{i}}
\def\bfj{\boldsymbol{j}}
\def\bfk{\boldsymbol{k}}
\def\bflambda{\boldsymbol{\lambda}}
\def\bfl{\boldsymbol{l}}
\def\bfm{\boldsymbol{m}}
\def\bfn{\boldsymbol{n}}
\def\bfomega{\boldsymbol{\omega}}
\def\bfone{\boldsymbol{1}}
\def\bfo{\boldsymbol{o}}
\def\bfpdd{\ddot{\bfp}}
\def\bfpd{\dot{\bfp}}
\def\bfphi{\boldsymbol{\phi}}
\def\bfp{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\bfq{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\bfr{\boldsymbol{r}}
\def\bfsigma{\boldsymbol{\sigma}}
\def\bfs{\boldsymbol{s}}
\def\bftau{\boldsymbol{\tau}}
\def\bftheta{\boldsymbol{\theta}}
\def\bft{\boldsymbol{t}}
\def\bfu{\boldsymbol{u}}
\def\bfv{\boldsymbol{v}}
\def\bfw{\boldsymbol{w}}
\def\bfxi{\boldsymbol{\xi}}
\def\bfx{\boldsymbol{x}}
\def\bfy{\boldsymbol{y}}
\def\bfzero{\boldsymbol{0}}
\def\bfz{\boldsymbol{z}}
\def\defeq{\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}}
\def\p{\boldsymbol{p}}
\def\qdd{\ddot{\bfq}}
\def\qd{\dot{\bfq}}
\def\q{\boldsymbol{q}}
\def\xd{\dot{x}}
\def\yd{\dot{y}}
\def\zd{\dot{z}}
b \to \infty b → ∞ ) and we have left that next problem open.